What Is A Arrhenius Acid

Open access peer-reviewed affiliate

The Arrhenius Acid and Base Theory

Submitted: March 11th, 2019 Reviewed: June 21st, 2019 Published: Oct 21st, 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.88173

From the Edited Volume

Corrosion

Edited past Ambrish Singh

Abstract

Swedish Svante Arrhenius, in 1884 proposed the concept of acid and base based on the theory of ionization. Co-ordinate to Arrhenius, the acids are the hydrogen-containing compounds which give H+ ions or protons on dissociation in h2o and bases are the hydroxide compounds which requite OH− ions on dissociation in water. This concept is merely applicable to those compounds which dissolved in aqueous solution (or you tin can say where water is the solvent). It covers many common acids, bases and their chemical reactions, merely there are also other compounds that have the characteristics of acids and bases merely they do not fit into Arrhenius concept.

Keywords

acids and bases
Arrhenius acrid-base of operations theory
the h2o-ion organisation
amphoteric nature of water
hydrogen or hydronium ion

Shikha Munjal
- Section of Chemical science, School of Basic Sciences, Jaipur National Academy, India
Aakash Singh*
- Department of Chemistry, School of Basic Sciences, Jaipur National University, India
- Department of Chemistry, Suditi Global University, India

*Address all correspondence to: aakashsingh.ucst@gmail.com

1. Introduction

The concept of acids and bases have been defined many times in different ways. Several scientists put various definitions to characterize the acids and bases in which some of the concepts are quite narrow and some are comprehensive. Acids and bases are existing everywhere in our daily life. Every liquid except water, that we used having acrid and basic backdrop, for case, vinegar (contains acetic acid), soft drinks (contains carbonic acid), buttermilk (contains lactic acid), soap (contains base). The earliest definitions were made on the basis of their taste and their effect on other substances.

ane.1 Acids

Acid are those substances which have sour in gustation, sharp smell, corrosive, having pH < 7 and plow blue litmus red. The neutralization reaction occurs when acrid reacts with alkali, forms table salt and water. The products are less acidic or basic than reactants. It reacts with metals, produces H₂. For example, the reaction between sodium hydroxide (base) and hydrochloric acrid, forms sodium chloride (table salt) and h2o.

1.2 Factors affecting acidic strength

The forcefulness of acids and bases depends on post-obit factors:

Polarity of the molecule and strength of H▬A bond
Electro negativity
Size

one.ii.1 Polarity of the molecule and force of H▬A bail

As the polarity of the molecule increases, the electron density will become abroad from hydrogen atom and information technology becomes H⁺ (proton). The greater is the positive charge on the hydrogen atom, H▬A bond volition become weaker, lesser is the energy required to break it. Then, the proton will easily dissociate in the solution. Hence, information technology will exist the potent acid [one].

1.2.1.1 Primal points

The priority should be given to the polarity of H▬A bond, when we compare the acidic strength of elements in the same row. But when nosotros compare the acidic strength of elements of same group of periodic table, and then priority is given to strength of H▬A bond.

1.two.2 Electro negativity

The hydrogen is attach to the more electronegative atom is more acidic. For example - the hydrogen is attached to the oxygen (East.Due north = iii.5) is more acidic than the hydrogen attached to nitrogen (E.North = 3.0, which is less electronegative than oxygen).

one.2.3 Size

The size of "A" cantlet affects the acidity of acidic force. As the size of the atom increases, the bond becomes weaker and acidic strength increases [2].

1.2.4 Hybridization

Hybridization plays an of import part in determining the acidic strength. As the hybridization moves from spⁱⁱⁱ to sp, the "southward" character increases, so acidic strength increases.

ane.3 Bases

Bases are those substances which have biting taste, odorless, turn crimson litmus blue, having pH more than 7 and becomes less alkaline when react with acid. These are violent and less reactive than acids. For example, NaOH (Sodium hydroxide), LiOH (Lithium hydroxide), KOH (potassium hydroxide), etc.

These are the general properties of acids or bases, simply not truthful for every unmarried acid or base. There are some important concepts:

Arrhenius acid-base of operations theory
Lewis acid-base of operations concept
Bronsted-Lowry concept
Lux-flood concept
Solvent-organization concept

2. The Arrhenius acid-base theory (the water-ion arrangement)

The Arrhenius acid-base theory was proposed by Swedish Svante Arrhenius. It was the showtime modern arroyo to acid-base of operations concept. This theory is quite simple and useful. Co-ordinate to Arrhenius theory, acids are the compound that increases the concentration of H⁺ or proton in aqueous solution. The released H⁺ ion or proton is not gratuitous-floating proton, information technology exists in combined country with the water molecule and forms hydronium ion (H₃O⁺). The common examples of Arrhenius acid includes HCl (muriatic acid), H₂So₄ (sulphuric acid), HNO_iii (nitric acrid), etc. as shown in Table 1.

Arrhenius acid formula	Name
HClO₃	Chloric acid
HNO₃	Nitric acrid
HClO₄	Perchloric acrid
H₃PO_iv	Phosphoric acid
H₂SO_iv	Sulphuric acid
H_iiAnd so₃	Sulfurous acrid
HCl	Muriatic acid
CH_threeCOOH	Acetic acrid
HBr	Hydrobromic acid

Table 1.

Some Arrhenius acids.

When it is dissolved in water, then:

The acids like HNO_three, HCl, etc. gives one proton on dissociation, called monoprotic acids. The acids like H₂Then₄, H₃PO₄, etc. which having more than 1 hydrogen atoms and gives more 1 H⁺ ions on dissociation, called polyprotic acids. It is non necessary that polyprotic acids are stronger than monoprotic acids.

Similarly, Arrhenius bases are compounds that increment the concentration of OH⁻ or hydroxide ion in aqueous solution or having at least one OH⁻ ion in formula. The common examples of Arrhenius base includes NaOH (sodium hydroxide), KOH (potassium hydroxide), Ca(OH)₂ (calcium hydroxide), Mg(OH)₂ (magnesium hydroxide), NH_ivOH (ammonium hydroxide), etc. equally shown in Table 2.

Arrhenius base	Name
NaOH	Sodium hydroxide
NH₄OH	Ammonium hydroxide
KOH	Potassium hydroxide
Mg(OH)₂	Magnesium hydroxide
Ca(OH)₂	Calcium hydroxide
Al(OH)₃	Aluminum hydroxide

Table 2.

Some Arrhenius bases.

When sodium hydroxide dissolved in h2o, it fully dissociates into ions Na⁺ and OH⁻, this dissociation increases the concentration of hydroxide ions in the solution.

two.1 Neutralization reaction

When Arrhenius acid and Arrhenius base reacts, common salt and h2o is formed as product, the reaction is known as neutralization reaction. For example:

The acids which are completely ionized in aqueous solution, is termed equally stiff acids such as HCl, HNO_iii, H₂SO₄, etc.

Hydrochloric acrid is a stiff acid. When information technology dissociates into water, hydronium ion and chloride ions are formed as production. Chloride ions are weak base of operations, but its basicity does not make the solution basic considering acidity is overpowering the basicity of chloride ions. The H⁺ ions combine with water molecule and course hydronium ion. In case of stiff acid, the concentration of hydronium ion formed is equal to the concentration of the acid whereas in case of weak acids, the concentration of hydronium ions in solution is always less than the concentration of hydrogen ions.

Whereas the acids which are weakly ionized in aqueous solution, is termed as weak acids such as acetic acid (CH_iiiCOOH).

In example of weak acids, the concentration of hydronium ion is e'er less than the concentration of acid.

Similarly, bases which are completely ionized in aqueous solution, are termed as potent bases such every bit NaOH, KOH, etc. whereas the bases which are weakly ionized in aqueous solution, is known as weak bases such as ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), etc.

Note: It is not necessary that strong acids/bases are concentrated and weak acids/bases are dilute. Because, the dissociation of a substance does not depend on its concentration.

3. Utility of Arrhenius concept

This theory explains many phenomena like forcefulness of acids and bases, common salt hydrolysis and neutralization.

Advertizement

4. Hydrogen ion (H⁺) or hydronium ion (H₃O⁺)

When electron is removing from hydrogen atom, hydrogen ion H⁺ is formed which is very reactive. Simply this H⁺ ion does not exist in aqueous solution. Since in aqueous medium, it reacts with water molecule and forms hydronium ion (H₃O⁺). Water is a polar molecule; information technology has the power to attract the hydrogen ion (H⁺). The water contains hydrogen and oxygen in which oxygen (EN = 3.v) is more electronegative that pulls the electron density towards it and causing the partial negative charge on the molecule. Due to fractional negative charge, it has ability to attract the positively charged hydrogen ion (H⁺) and grade hydronium ion (H₃O⁺). Hydronium ions are more stable than hydrogen ions.

The hydronium ion is very important factor in chemic reaction that occurs in aqueous solutions [3]. Information technology is formed by the protonation of water.

5. Concept of pH

The pH of solution can exist determined past the concentration of hydronium ion.

pH = −log (H₃O⁺)

From this equation, we can discover the pH of pure water. The pH of pure h2o comes to be 7 that is considered to exist neutral. The solution is either acidic or basic depending on the change in the concentration of hydronium ion.

According to Figure 1:

If the concentration of the hydronium ion in the solution increases means more than 10⁻⁷ mol/50, pH increases that makes the solution more acidic.
If the concentration of the hydronium ion in the solution decreases means <10⁻⁷ mol/l, pH decreases that makes the solution more than basic.

6. Amphoteric nature of water

The give-and-take amphoteric is derived from Greek word "amphi" that means both (acid and base of operations). Amphoteric substances are those that has potential to act either as an acid or base of operations. For example: H_twoO (h2o) [3].

On dissociation, information technology ionizes into H⁺ and OH⁻ (hydroxide) ion. The presence of H⁺ indicates an acrid and the presence of OH⁻ ion indicates a base. Since, water is a neutral molecule. So, it dissociates as into H⁺ and OH⁻ ion.

According to Arrhenius acid-base theory:

The amphoteric nature of water is very important considering most of the acid-base chemical reactions takes place in the presence of water. Water is of import amphoteric compound that can deed as both an Arrhenius acid or Arrhenius base of operations.

Auto-ionization of water [four];

The H⁺ ion (a blank proton) does non exist in the solution, it forms hydronium ions by hydrogen bonding with nearest water molecule. Many books refers the "concentration of hydrogen ions" which is not right. Because there are no H⁺ ions, simply hydronium ions in the solution. Technically, the number of hydronium ions formed is equal to the number of hydrogen ion. Then, both tin can exist used.

7. Advantages of Arrhenius theory

This theory is used to explains:

Forcefulness of acid and bases

The strength of Arrhenius acid and Arrhenius base tin be determined by the extent to which it dissociate to give H⁺ ion or hydroxide ion [5].

The properties of acids and bases in aqueous medium.
Neutralization of acid by reaction with base

Advertizement

8. Limitation of Arrhenius acid-base theory

This theory is very limited, out of three theories. According to this theory, the solution medium should be aqueous and acid should produce hydrogen ion (H⁺) or base of operations should produce hydroxide ion (OH⁻) on dissociation with water. Hence, the substance is regarded as Arrhenius acid or Arrhenius base when it is dissolved in h2o. For example, HNO₃ is regarded as Arrhenius acrid when it is dissolved in aqueous solution. But when it is dissolved in whatsoever other solvent like benzene, no dissociation occurs. This is against the Arrhenius theory.
Arrhenius theory is not applicable on the non-aqueous or gaseous reactions because information technology explained the acid-base behavior in terms of aqueous solutions.
In Arrhenius theory, salts are produce in the product which are neither acidic nor bones. And then, this theory cannot explicate the neutralization reaction without the presence of ions. For example, when acerb acrid (weak acid) and sodium hydroxide (strong base) reacts, then the resulting solution bones. Merely this concept is not explained by Arrhenius.
Arrhenius theory is only applicative to those compounds which having formula HA or BOH for acids and bases. There are some acids similar AlCl₃, CuSO₄, CO₂, SO_ii which cannot exist represented by HA formula, this theory is unable to explicate their acidic behavior. Similarly, in that location are some bases like Na₂CO₃, NH₃, etc. which do not represented by BOH formula, this theory is unable to explain their basic behavior.

9. Bronsted-Lowry theory

We take been previously learned an Arrhenius acid-base theory which provided a good start towards the acid-base chemistry but it has certain limitations and problems. Afterwards this theory, a Danish chemist, named Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and British scientist, Thomas Martin Lowry proposed a different definition of acid-base that based on the abilities of compound to either donate or accept the protons. This theory is known equally Bronsted-Lowry theory, also called Proton theory of acrid and base. This theory gives a more general and useful acrid-base definition and applies to wide range of chemical reactions. In this theory, nosotros usually consider a hydrogen cantlet as a proton that has lost its electrons and becomes a positively charged hydrogen ion (represented by symbol, H⁺).

Co-ordinate to Bronsted-Lowry concept, an acid is considered to be Bronsted-Lowry acid which is capable to donate a proton to someone else. A base of operations is considered to be Bronsted-Lowry base of operations which is capable to accept a proton from someone else. From here, it tin can note that when an acrid reacts with a base, the proton is transferred from 1 chemical species to another.

Bronsted-Lowry acrid-Hydrogen ion (Proton) donor.
Bronsted-Lowry base-Hydrogen ion (Proton) acceptor.

9.1 Cohabit acid-base of operations pairs

Cohabit acrid: Information technology forms when a base accepts proton.
Conjugate base of operations: It forms when an acid donates proton.

Annotation: If an acrid is strong, the conjugate base volition be weaker and if the base is stiff, the conjugate acid will be weak.

Consider the following chemical reaction:

In this reaction, HCl is an acid considering it is donating proton to NH₃. Therefore, HCl is act as Bronsted-Lowry acid whereas NH₃ has a lone pair of electrons which is used to accept the protons. Therefore, NH₃ is deed as Bronsted-Lowry base. This reaction is reversible also. In reversible case, the ammonium ion reacts with chloride ion and once again converts into ammonia (NH_iii) and hydrogen chloride (HCl). In this example, the ammonium ion is altruistic a proton, called conjugate acid. The chloride ion (Cl⁻) ion is accepting a proton, called cohabit base.

In that location are two conjugate pairs—cohabit pair 1 and conjugate pair 2.

Cohabit pair ane: HCl and Cl⁻
Cohabit pair two: NH_iii and NH₄ ⁺

From that equation, the ammonium ion (NH_iv ⁺) is a cohabit acid of base ammonia and chloride ion (Cl⁻) is a cohabit base of acid hydrogen chloride.

Note: According to the theory of Arrhenius, the reaction between HCl and NH₃ is not considered as acid-base reaction because none of these species gives H⁺ and OH⁻ ions in water.

nine.2 Examples of Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases

In this reaction, the nitric acid donates a proton to the h2o, therefore it act as a Bronsted-Lowry acid. Since, water accepts a proton from nitric acid, so it is act as Bronsted-Lowry base. In this reaction, the arrow is fatigued only to the right side which means that reaction highly favours the formation of products.

In this reaction, the h2o is losing its proton, becomes hydroxide (OH⁻) and donates its proton to the ammonia. Therefore, h2o is act every bit Bronsted-Lowry acrid. Ammonia is accepting a proton from the h2o, forms ammonium ion (NH₄ ⁺). Therefore, ammonia is act as Bronsted-Lowry base.

From the above two reactions, we can conclude that the water is Amphoteric in nature which means that it tin can act equally both: Bronsted-Lowry acid and Bronsted-Lowry base of operations.

9.iii Advantages of Bronsted-Lowry theory

This theory is able to explain the acid-base of operations behavior in aqueous and non-aqueous medium.
It explains the basic character of substances like NH₃, CaO, Na₂CO₃, that is, which do not incorporate −OH group but co-ordinate to Arrhenius theory, they are not considered as bases.
It explains the acidic graphic symbol of substances like CO₂, SO₂, etc. which exercise non comprise hydrogen ion group but according to Arrhenius theory, they are not considered as acids.
This theory also explains the acid-base behavior of ionic species.

9.4 Disadvantages of Bronsted-Lowry theory

According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, same compound is human activity as acid in one reaction and act as base in other reaction. So, sometimes information technology is very difficult to predict the verbal acid or base in a reaction.
This theory is non able to explain the acidic, basic besides as Amphoteric gaseous molecule.
This theory does not explain the beliefs of acids similar BF_iii, AlCl_iii, BCl₃, etc. which do not protons to loose or donate.
This theory does not explicate reactions between acidic oxides (CO₂, Then_two, SO₃) and bones oxides (CaO, MgO, BrO) which takes identify in the absence of solvent.

10. Relation betwixt Arrhenius theory and Bronsted-Lowry theory

These 2 theories are not against to each other in whatever way, in fact Bronsted-Lowry theory is advance to the Arrhenius theory.

According to the Arrhenius theory, a substance which produces hydrogen ion in water, called acid. A substance which produces hydroxide ion in water, called base.

According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, an acid is proton donor and base is proton acceptor.

Co-ordinate to Arrhenius theory, muriatic acid is an acrid which gives hydrogen ions in water but according to Bronsted-Lowry theory, muriatic acid is an acid considering it donates a proton to the water molecule. By observing both concepts, water is acting equally a base. So, we tin can see hither that both theories are very similar to each other.

Actually, Arrhenius theory is limited only to the aqueous solution. It does not explain the acrid behavior in gaseous form.

11. Lewis acid-base theory

The Bronsted-Lowry theory which we accept been previously studied was a good startup for acid-base chemistry. The Bronsted-Lowry concept was based on the transfer of proton from 1 chemic species to some other. Merely this theory has certain limitations. UC Berkeley scientist, Chiliad.Northward. Lewis, in 1923 proposed a new acid-base of operations theory which is based on their transfer of electrons. This theory is more advanced and flexible than Bronsted-Lowry because it explains the acid-base of operations behavior in that molecules which do not contain hydrogen ions or in non-aqueous medium.

11.1 Lewis acid

According to this theory, an acrid is a substance which has capability to have the non-bonding pair of electrons, chosen Lewis acid. They are sometimes referred as electron deficient species or electrophile.

11.one.1 Lewis acid: characteristics

Lewis acid-electron-pair acceptor.
Lewis acid should take a vacant or empty orbital.
All cations (Na⁺, Cuⁱⁱ⁺, Iron³⁺) are Lewis acids considering they take capability to take a pair of electrons but all Lewis acids are not cations.

More than is the positive charge on the metal, more is the acidic character. Feⁱⁱⁱ⁺ is practiced Lewis acid than Na⁺.

The ion, molecule or an atom which has incomplete octet of electrons are also Lewis acids.

For example: BF_iii.

Here, yous can see that the central cantlet boron has 6 electrons in its outermost shell. And so, it has ability to accept more electrons due to the presence of an empty orbital and hence, act as Lewis acrid.

The molecule in which the central atom has more than eight electrons (SiF_four, SiBr₄), are also considered as Lewis acids.
The molecule like CO₂, And so₂, etc. are also considered as Lewis acid. These types of molecules grade multiple bond between the atoms of different electronegativity. In example of transition metal ions, the metal having more than electronegativity makes stronger Lewis acids.
Electron poor п: system is also considered as Lewis acids, for example, [CH_ii=CH]⁺, etc.

11.2 Lewis base

A base is a substance which has capability to donate the electrons, called Lewis base of operations. They are sometimes referred as electron rich species or Nucleophile.

11.2.1 Lewis base: characteristics

Lewis base-electron-pair donor
All metallic anions (F⁻, Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻) are Lewis base of operations because they have ability to donate the electron just all Lewis bases are non anions.
The ion, molecule or an atom which having a alone pair of electrons, are as well considered as Lewis base of operations.
The electron-rich п system is also considered equally Lewis bases, for example, benzene, ethene, etc.
The strength of the Lewis base tin can be increased past increasing the electron density.

Annotation: When a Lewis acid reacts with Lewis base, then Lewis acid uses its lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) and base of operations uses its highest occupied molecular orbital (HUMO) to create a bonded molecular orbital. Actually, Lewis acid and Lewis base both have LUMO and HUMO but HUMO is ever considered as base of operations and LUMO is ever considered as acid.

11.3 Instance of Lewis acid-base

A simplest case of Lewis acrid-base is shown past a chemical reaction:

In this reaction, chloride ion acts equally Lewis base because it has lone pairs of electrons and sodium ion has positive charge, so it acts as Lewis acrid.

xi.four Neutralization reaction between Lewis acid and Lewis base

When a Lewis acid reacts with a Lewis base, and so a Lewis acrid-base reaction occurs in which the molecule which act as Lewis base of operations donate its electron pair into the empty orbital of an acid, forms Lewis acid-base adduct as shown in Effigy 2. The adduct formed contains a covalent coordinate bail between Lewis acid and Lewis base. The above explanation implies that the Lewis acid is a depression electron density eye and Lewis base is a high electron density middle [half-dozen].

In this reaction, the two ammonia molecules reacts with silver ion. The ammonia has solitary pair of electrons, so information technology has the ability to donate the lone pairs of electrons and acts as Lewis base. The positive accuse on silver denotes its electrophilic nature that ways information technology has an ability to have the pairs of electrons and act as Lewis acrid (by Lewis definition).

Here, it can also be noted that when a Lewis acrid reacts with a Lewis base of operations, at that place is no change in the oxidation number of any of these atoms.

11.5 Limitations of Lewis acrid-base theory

This theory is not able to explain that why all acid-base reactions exercise not involve the covalent coordination bond.
This theory is too unable to explain the behavior of some acids like hydrogen chloride (HCl) and sulfuric acrid (H_iiSO₄) considering they do non course the covalent coordination bail with bases. Hence, they are not considered every bit Lewis acids.
This theory cannot explain the concept that why the formation of coordination bond is a slow process and acrid-base reactions is a fast process.
This theory cannot explain the concept of relative forcefulness of acids and bases.
This theory fails to explain the catalytic activity of some Lewis acids.

12. Relation between Lewis acid-base theory and Arrhenius theory

All Arrhenius acids and Bronsted Lowry acids are Lewis acids simply reverse is not true.

13. Conclusion

Acids and bases are very important for modern guild and in our daily lives. They be everywhere in our body and in our environs. The theory that has been described in this affiliate has given us all the basic information of acids and bases. In this affiliate, we have discussed all the three basic theory of acid-base chemistry-Arrhenius theory, Bronsted-Lowry theory and Lewis acrid-base theory. Acids and bases accept vital role in the surface area of medicine. From this concept, information technology is now piece of cake to care for the diseases with the improved medicines past complex understanding of acids and bases. For example, If the concentration of hydrogen ion increases in the human being claret, acidity increases that results weakness in trunk. In that condition, the trunk should keep element of group i past digesting nutrient that produces alkali in the body, to neutralize the acidity.

Definitely, without acids or bases information, our lives would look dissimilar to how information technology looks now. Many products we are using today would accept no use without this cognition.

Acknowledgments

I am eternally grateful and beholden to my family unit. My mother Mrs. Suman Munjal, Father Mr. Bhim Sain Munjal and sister Mrs. Shweta Java for strengthening me with the opportunities and experiences which enabled me in reaching these heights. The reason behind this success is their selfless encouragement that helped me explore new dimensions in my life.

I peculiarly acknowledge the contribution of my confidence Dr. Himanshu Mathur and brother Mr. Chirag Munjal for his continuous and consistent support, efficient efforts of proof reading my works, kind words of motivation, and providing me with helpful tips. I would like to show my appreciation for sharing his expertise and experiences for organizing required resources.

Conflict of interest

None.

Declaration

I Shikha Munjal undersigned solemnly declare that all the information submitted past me in this chapter is right, true and valid.

References

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Written By

Shikha Munjal and Aakash Singh

Submitted: March 11th, 2019 Reviewed: June 21st, 2019 Published: October 21st, 2020

© 2020 The Writer(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Eatables Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted utilize, distribution, and reproduction in whatsoever medium, provided the original piece of work is properly cited.